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Rivers, Streams and Riparian - Direct Threats and Conservation Actions (SWAP)

Threats and actions are not listed in order of priority.

Residential and Commercial Development

1.1 Housing and Urban Areas

Threats

  1. conversion of riparian to urban development
  2. streambank and shoreline stabilization
  3. channelization
  4. vegetation planted for ornamental purposes can invade adjacent wetlands
  5. mowing of aquatic or riparian vegetation for ornamental grooming
  6. pesticide/herbicide application and drift impacts adjacent plant/wildlife species composition
  7. predation of wetland wildlife by domestic animals near urban areas
  8. increased or altered runoff due to non-porous surface increases

Conservation Action

  1. offer incentives and programs to protect, enhance, and restore rivers, streams and riparian
  2. develop or support programs, initiatives and statutory language that strengthen the efficacy of conservation measures
  3. avoid and minimize impacts to aquatic systems; mitigate unavoidable impacts
  4. implement soil bioengineering for streambank and shoreline stabilization
  5. work with partners to develop ecologically responsible urban planning and zoning policies
  6. public education and outreach for native landscaping and management
  7. increase awareness, understanding, and appreciation of the river or stream ecosystem
  8. promote responsible and conscientious use of pesticides

1.2 Commercial and Industrial Areas

Threats

  1. conversion of riparian to commercial and industrial development
  2. streambank and shoreline stabilization
  3. channelization
  4. water withdrawal and entrapment and impingement
  5. potential for spills

Conservation Action

  1. avoid and minimize impacts to aquatic systems; mitigate unavoidable impacts
  2. implement soil bioengineering for streambank and shoreline stabilization
  3. protection of instream flows
  4. implement entrainment and impingement reduction recommendations, best management practices
  5. work with partners to develop ecologically responsible urban planning and zoning
  6. work with partners to develop ecologically responsible ordinances and suitable reclamation standards
  7. maintain appropriate water management

1.3 Tourism and Recreational Areas

Threats

  1. expanding cabin developments
  2. dock/marina development
  3. disturbance associated with recreation development can disperse noxious/invasive weeds
  4. increased chemical or pesticide application and drift impacts adjacent plant/wildlife species composition
  5. unrestrained domestic animals can harass wildlife

Conservation Action

  1. urge ecologically responsible ordinances
  2. promote responsible and conscientious use of pesticides

Agriculture

2.1 Annual and Perennial Non-Timber Crops

Threats

  1. conversion of riparian to cropland development
  2. displacement of riparian associated wildlife during conversion process
  3. channelization and dredging
  4. pesticide application and drift impacts on adjacent plant/wildlife species composition
  5. increase in soil erosion and sedimentation into wetlands from lack of residual cover on cropland
  6. impacts to water table and water infiltration rates
  7. water withdrawal for irrigation and entrapment and impingement
  8. tile drainage, wetland loss and altered hydrology
  9. increase of noxious weeds and invasive plants when riparian areas are disturbed

Conservation Action

  1. offer incentives and programs to protect, enhance, and restore rivers, streams and riparian, and uplands, i.e. grasslands and wetlands
  2. develop or support programs, initiatives and statutory language that strengthen the efficacy of conservation measures
  3. protection of instream flows
  4. maintain and enforce Farm Bill regulatory provisions
  5. offer incentives for aquatic friendly farming, tax-based or direct payments
  6. offer midterm conservation agreements for riparian management and protection
  7. support demo projects and best management practices, including public outreach and education on ecosystem services that riparian systems provide
  8. explore new techniques to address impacts to water table
  9. promotion of cover crops and soil health
  10. implement entrainment and impingement reduction recommendations, best management practices
  11. develop and implement watershed plans
  12. use forestry best management practices for wooded riparian
  13. integrated pest management
  14. promote responsible and conscientious use of pesticides

2.3 Livestock Farming and Ranching

Threats

  1. heavy grazing in and around rivers and streams resulting in total loss of aquatic or riparian vegetation
  2. disturbance, erosion, and decline in soil health in high livestock traffic areas
  3. shift from ranching (pro-grass) lifestyle to confined animal feeding operations
  4. pesticide runoff
  5. waste runoff
  6. inappropriate fencing (i.e. not wildlife-friendly)
  7. increase of noxious weeds and invasive plants from poor grazing management practices

Conservation Action

  1. offer incentives and programs to protect, enhance, and restore rivers, streams and riparian
  2. develop or support programs, initiatives and statutory language that strengthen the efficacy of conservation measures
  3. incentivize good grazing management
  4. fence livestock out of waterways and shorelines
  5. offer incentives and programs for alternative water sources, e.g. wells, portable water
  6. promote and support regenerative grazing management, use best management practices or ecological site descriptions
  7. support grazing lands coalitions, work with grass-based agriculture groups, and associated outreach activities
  8. use best management practices or ecological site descriptions
  9. feedlot setbacks
  10. develop crucial habitat maps or species avoidance areas
  11. develop watershed plans
  12. encourage temporary or virtual fencing when possible, discourage fencing across rivers and streams
  13. promote off-site watering systems for cattle
  14. promote responsible livestock practices that minimize disease spread (i.e. double fences, appropriate removal of carcasses, etc.)

2.4 Freshwater Aquaculture

Threats

  1. illegal introductions

Conservation Action

  1. increase enforcement, deterrents and fines

Energy Production and Mining

3.1 Oil and Gas Drilling

Threats

  1. conversion of riparian to well pads, field or production facilities
  2. fragmentation of riparian from well pads, field or production facilities, access roads
  3. illegal dewatering rivers and streams for frack water
  4. disturbance associated with oil and gas development can proliferate noxious/invasive weeds
  5. inadequate or improper reclamation
  6. illegal dumping of materials and waste or incidental spill
  7. anthropogenic disturbance to aquatic system associated wildlife, e.g. dust, light and noise pollution
  8. social apathy to negative ecological impacts of oil and gas drilling
  9. governance apathy to negative ecological impacts of oil and gas drilling

Conservation Action

  1. well pad and facility consolidation, minimize footprint of development
  2. increase deterrents and fines
  3. foster relationships with oil companies to stimulate ecologically sound development
  4. engage in early consultation with the siting of well pads
  5. avoid and minimize impacts to aquatic systems; mitigate unavoidable impacts
  6. follow/implement best management practices
  7. incentivize companies for implementing ecologically sound development
  8. urge ecologically responsible ordinances and suitable reclamation standards and foster relationships with oil companies to stimulate ecologically sound development
  9. urge requirements to promptly reclaim dry or abandoned wells
  10. enforce regulatory compliance and close loopholes which are used to delay or avoid reclamation
  11. public education and outreach
  12. public disclosure of impacts/footprint
  13. research the impacts of oil and gas drilling on streams, rivers and riparian, and wildlife
  14. maintain appropriate water management

3.2 Mining and Quarrying

Threats

  1. conversion of streams or riparian to mines or quarries
  2. conversion of non-jurisdictional stream beds
  3. sand and gravel washing in stream
  4. anthropogenic disturbance to aquatic system associated wildlife
  5. inadequate or improper reclamation, abandonment
  6. increase of noxious weeds and invasive plants when land is mined

Conservation Action

  1. minimize footprint of development
  2. avoid and minimize impacts to aquatic systems; mitigate unavoidable impacts
  3. protection of instream flows
  4. best management practices, e.g. gabion-lined channel
  5. follow suitable reclamation standards
  6. proper setback
  7. promote or develop local and state ordinances
  8. delay or halt mining/quarrying for new metals or minerals until local ordinances have been approved

3.3 Renewable Energy

Threats

  1. conversion of riparian to energy facility
  2. fragmentation of aquatic complexes by wind or solar facilities
  3. hydropower interrupts the river continuum
  4. direct or indirect mortality of wildlife species from structures
  5. altered wildlife migrations
  6. anthropogenic disturbance to aquatic or riparian associated wildlife, e.g. dust, noise and light pollution
  7. displacement of wildlife

Conservation Action

  1. offer incentives and programs to protect, enhance, and restore rivers, streams and riparian
  2. incentivize companies for implementing ecologically sound development alongside carbon incentives
  3. avoid and minimize impacts to aquatic systems; mitigate unavoidable impacts
  4. urge ecologically responsible ordinances and suitable reclamation standards
  5. urge accountability for ecological impacts
  6. minimize footprint of development
  7. dam removal or modification
  8. research and model to determine best areas for placement to minimize impacts to wildlife
  9. use livestock to control weeds
  10. establish pollinator-friendly plantings under solar arrays

Transportation and Service Corridors

4.1 Roads and Railroads

Threats

  1. conversion of riparian to roads and railroads
  2. fragmentation of aquatic complexes by roads and railroads
  3. roads functioning as dams
  4. culverts, alter natural water movement or promote unnatural movement
  5. erosion and sedimentation
  6. anthropogenic disturbance to aquatic system associated wildlife, e.g. noise, dust
  7. direct mortality of wildlife species with vehicles or trains
  8. proliferate noxious/invasive weeds
  9. road and railway incidents secondary effects, e.g. spills and explosions, run-off
  10. inadequate reclamation
  11. improper herbicide uses in railroad rights-of-way
  12. road salt impacts to roadside plants and rights-of way

Conservation Action

  1. urge ecologically responsible ordinances and suitable reclamation standards
  2. avoid and minimize impacts to aquatic systems; mitigate unavoidable impacts
  3. use best management practices for erosion and sediment control
  4. appropriate road restrictions, including speed limits
  5. seasonal restrictions for construction
  6. use pipelines versus trucking liquids and gas
  7. maintain natural corridors or construct wildlife crossings
  8. considerations for fish passage at bridge/railroad crossings
  9. use native local ecotype seed, including pollinator-friendly, when seeding road rights-of-way
  10. promote wetland restoration and creation to minimize flooding impacts to roads/infrastructure

4.2 Utility and Service Lines

Threats

  1. fragmentation of aquatic complexes by utility and service lines
  2. disturbance associated with development of utility and service lines can proliferate noxious/invasive weeds
  3. inadequate reclamation
  4. intensification and accumulation of infrastructure
  5. direct mortality of wildlife species, particularly birds, by collision or electrocution
  6. altered predator/prey dynamics

Conservation Action

  1. consolidate corridors
  2. encourage buried lines when feasible
  3. urge ecologically responsible ordinances and suitable reclamation standards
  4. engage in early consultation with the siting of utility and service lines
  5. avoid and minimize impacts to aquatic systems; mitigate unavoidable impacts
  6. seasonal restrictions for construction
  7. require line marking devices
  8. use avian protection plans or guidance documents to minimize bird/powerline interactions
  9. use native local ecotype seed, including pollinator-friendly, when reseeding easement rights-of-way

Biological Resource Use

5.1 Hunting and Collecting Terrestrial Animals

Threats

  1. anthropogenic disturbance to aquatic or riparian associated wildlife, e.g. off-road travel, dog training during nesting season and brood rearing period
  2. disturbance/movement can proliferate noxious/invasive weeds
  3. insufficient regulations for collection or harvest of certain wildlife, e.g. reptiles and amphibians
  4. poaching
  5. lead ammunition impacts to non-target wildlife

Conservation Action

  1. urge ecologically responsible ordinances
  2. increase enforcement and deterrents
  3. reevaluate or develop regulations pertaining to collection or harvest of certain wildlife, e.g. reptiles and amphibians
  4. increase public education and outreach efforts
  5. amend dog training laws and regulations to minimize impacts to wildlife during sensitive life cycle periods
  6. encourage non-toxic ammunition use

5.3 Logging and Wood Harvest

Threats

  1. firewood transportation
  2. inadequate laws

Conservation Action

  1. increase public education and outreach efforts
  2. evaluate current laws and regulations
  3. follow firewood cutting and movement regulations

5.4 Fishing and Harvesting Aquatic Resources

Threats

  1. anthropogenic disturbance to aquatic or riparian associated wildlife, e.g. off-road travel
  2. disturbance/movement can proliferate noxious/invasive weeds
  3. wildlife value orientations or changing public attitudes towards wildlife, e.g. stimulate illegal fishing/collection of aquatic species, or promote the introduction of nonnative species for fishing
  4. insufficient regulations for collection or harvest of certain wildlife, e.g. amphibians
  5. spread of aquatic nuisance species
  6. unregulated commercial take of aquatic resources
  7. poaching

Conservation Action

  1. urge ecologically responsible ordinances
  2. increase enforcement, deterrents and fines
  3. reevaluate or develop regulations pertaining to collection or harvest of certain wildlife, e.g. amphibians
  4. public education and outreach
  5. follow aquatic nuisance species regulations and recommendations

Human Intrusions and Disturbance

6.1 Recreational Activities

Threats

  1. damage to rivers, streams and riparian habitat from off-road vehicles
  2. anthropogenic disturbance to aquatic or riparian associated wildlife, e.g. boating
  3. impacts to shoreline and submerged vegetation from wake boating
  4. littering
  5. spread of aquatic nuisance species

Conservation Action

  1. increase enforcement, deterrents and fines
  2. restrict or eliminate off-road vehicle use in environmentally sensitive areas
  3. increase public education and outreach efforts (i.e. signage)
  4. reclamation/rehabilitation
  5. develop regulations for wake boat use
  6. follow aquatic nuisance species regulations and recommendations

6.2 Military Exercises

Threats

  1. anthropogenic disturbance to aquatic and riparian associated wildlife

Conservation Action

  1. support responsible processes

6.3 Work and Other Activities

Threats

  1. anthropogenic disturbance to aquatic and riparian associated wildlife

Conservation Action

  1. urge ecologically responsible ordinances

Natural Systems Modifications

7.1 Fire and Fire Suppression

Threats

  1. wildfire in riparian habitat
  2. public resistance to use of prescribed fire/controlled burns

Conservation Action

  1. increase public education and outreach efforts
  2. implement prescribed fire/controlled burns

7.2 Dams and Water Management/Use

Threats

  1. conversion of natural stream, river or other existing habitat to impoundment
  2. impoundments may proliferate concentration of salts, heavy metals, etc.
  3. low-head dams impeded fish passage
  4. addition of water may proliferate spread of West Nile virus to riparian associated wildlife
  5. inappropriate movement of water as water management
  6. lack of cottonwood regeneration due to altered hydrology
  7. aggradation/degradation/sedimentation
  8. change in water infiltration rates
  9. dry dams or retention dams
  10. water supply projects

Conservation Action

  1. offer incentives and programs to protect, enhance, and restore rivers, streams and riparian
  2. offer incentives and programs for alternative water sources, e.g. wells, portable water
  3. reclaim deteriorating dams and dugouts
  4. incentivize low-head dam removal and/or modification
  5. do not develop dry dams or retention dams
  6. education about dynamic water systems and water management
  7. incentivize buffers/exclusion zones
  8. exclude impoundments in ecologically sensitive or inappropriate areas
  9. monitor and research water quality
  10. develop and implement watershed plans
  11. implement best management practices upstream
  12. rehabilitate existing dams to incorporate fish passage

7.3 Other Ecosystem Modification

Threats

  1. loss of hygrophyte diversity
  2. diminishing soil health, e.g. compaction and loss of water infiltration
  3. changes in water systems
  4. tile and surface drainage, impacts to water quality, hydrology and wetland loss
  5. dry dams and retention dams
  6. impacts to riparian wildlife
  7. amplification of run-off events
  8. modification of watersheds
  9. channelization

Conservation Action

  1. promote wetland plant diversity
  2. promote soil health
  3. ecosystem education and awareness
  4. research impacts of tile drainage on wetland ecosystems
  5. construct fish passages on existing dams
  6. re-evaluate surface/subsurface laws, regulations and policies
  7. incorporate climate smart native species

7.4 Removing/Reducing Human Maintenance

Threats

  1. loss of indigenous peoples management regimes

Conservation Action

  1. include indigenous peoples culture and values

Invasive and Problematic Species, Pathogens and Genes

8.1 Invasive Non-Native/Alien Plants and Animals

Threats

  1. spread and proliferation of invasive or detrimental plants, e.g. hybrid cattail
  2. spread and proliferation of noxious weeds
  3. spread and proliferation of invasive woody vegetation
  4. spread of invasive insects, e.g. emerald ash borer, Japanese beetle
  5. aquatic nuisance species
  6. feral and free-roaming domestic animals
  7. fish stocking
  8. increased pesticide use in riparian areas
  9. competitive advantage of invasive species

Conservation Action

  1. removal or reduction of invasive or detrimental plants using grazing, fire, chemical and mechanical treatments
  2. removal or reduction of noxious weeds using grazing, fire, chemical, mechanical and biological treatments
  3. develop recommended plant lists and sources of local ecotype seed
  4. engage the horticultural industry to educate and promote recommended plants and reduce the use of problematic invasive or detrimental plants
  5. public education and outreach
  6. follow aquatic nuisance species regulations and recommendations
  7. support programs and initiatives to reduce or remove feral animals from native habitat
  8. encourage pet owners to keep animals indoors, in an outdoor enclosure, or on a leash, to protect both the welfare of the animal and wildlife
  9. research control or reduction of invasive plants
  10. evaluate impacts of fish stocking, decrease rates or do not stock fish in ecologically sensitive wetlands
  11. integrated pest management
  12. follow firewood cutting and movement regulations

8.2 Problematic Native Species

Threats

  1. spread and proliferation of reed canarygrass

Conservation Action

  1. removal or reduction of undesirable native plants using grazing, fire, chemical and mechanical treatments

8.3 Introduced Genetic Material

Threats

  1. genetically modified plants enable the use of a broad range of pesticides and herbicides
  2. increase of herbicide resistant plants
  3. neonicotinoid effects on non-target organisms
  4. potential pesticide resistance

Conservation Action

  1. promote pragmatic use of herbicides and pesticides

8.4 Pathogens and Microbes

Threats

  1. Dutch elm disease

Conservation Action

  1. follow firewood cutting and movement regulations
  2. increase public education/outreach efforts

Pollution

9.1 Domestic and Urban Waste Water

Threats

  1. pipeline leaks
  2. inappropriate disposal of untreated sewage
  3. septic system drainage into rivers and streams
  4. non-point runoff from housing and urban areas, e.g. fertilizer and pesticides from lawns and golf courses

Conservation Action

  1. require pipeline warning system for leak detection
  2. improve reporting and disclosure of incidents
  3. increase enforcement and deterrents
  4. encourage building setback, no structures within 100 feet (minimum) of river or stream
  5. require septic setback, or lagoon septic systems
  6. incentivize riparian herbaceous or forest buffers
  7. discourage synthetic fertilizer use

9.2 Industrial and Military Effluents

Threats

  1. pipeline leaks, e.g. oil and brine water
  2. oil and brine water spills at production or exploration facilities
  3. oil and brine water spills during transportation
  4. inappropriate disposal of brine water
  5. inappropriate disposal of radioactive waste
  6. coal mining and coal-fired power plant waste seepages
  7. nonpoint runoff from military bases
  8. thermal pollution
  9. emerging contaminants (i.e., PFAS)

Conservation Action

  1. require pipeline warning system for leak detection
  2. require check valves to contain oil in pipeline in the event of a pipeline rupture
  3. improve reporting and disclosure of incidents
  4. quantify the magnitude of incidents, full disclosure of environmental impact
  5. increase enforcement, deterrents, and fines
  6. additional monitoring
  7. improved reclamation and remediation

9.3 Agriculture and Forestry Effluents

Threats

  1. fertilizer and pesticide runoff from cropland
  2. runoff from improperly designed or sited feedlots
  3. livestock excrement and urine (fecal coliform), Escherichia coli, point source pollution
  4. tile drainage, nonpoint source pollution
  5. in-stream turbation
  6. improper disposal of pesticides

Conservation Action

  1. require warning system for waste leakage detection
  2. require full containment feedlot runoff control system
  3. improve reporting and disclosure of incidents
  4. quantify the magnitude of incidents, full disclosure of environmental impact
  5. promote and support regenerative grazing
  6. increase enforcement, deterrents and fines
  7. follow/implement best management practices

9.4 Garbage and Solid Waste

Threats

  1. illegal waste sites
  2. litter
  3. landfill leachate

Conservation Action

  1. improve reporting and disclosure of incidents
  2. increase enforcement, deterrents and fines
  3. install monitoring wells

9.5 Air-borne Pollutants

Threats

  1. dust, e.g. from increased traffic on gravel roads, mines or quarries, coal-fired power plants,
  2. pesticide or herbicide drift
  3. hydrogen sulfide
  4. methane
  5. CO2
  6. decreased photosynthesis
  7. wind dispersion of nutrients, pollution, or sediments
  8. mercury contamination from wildfire smoke

Conservation Action

  1. require warning system for air-borne pollutant detection
  2. quantify the magnitude of incidents, full disclosure of environmental impact
  3. increase enforcement, deterrents and fines
  4. promote carbon credits/sequestration

9.6 Excess Energy

Threats

  1. light and thermal pollution causing disturbance to riparian associated wildlife, e.g. from natural gas flaring or urban areas
  2. noise pollution, e.g. from increased traffic, work sites
  3. data center disturbance to wildlife, e.g., noise, heat

Conservation Action

  1. improve reporting and disclosure of incidents
  2. quantify the magnitude of incidents, full disclosure of environmental impact
  3. increase enforcement, deterrents and fines

Geological Events

10.3 Avalanches/Landslides

Threats

  1. land sloughing
  2. anthropogenic causes to bank, destabilization

Conservation Action

  1. offer incentives or programs for sensitive or susceptible land
  2. implement methods for streambank and shoreline stabilization
  3. incentive riparian herbaceous or forest buffers

Climate Change

11.1 Ecosystem Encroachment

Threats

  1. changes in native and invasive species composition
  2. changes in phenology
  3. changes in species life cycle requirements
  4. timing and intensity of weather events

Conservation Action

  1. alter management plans to adapt to predicted changes
  2. provide habitat connectivity to ease species shifts
  3. research predicted changes and potential impacts
  4. monitor effect of changes
  5. some change is natural, dynamic landscape
  6. hybridizing climate tolerant species
  7. offer incentives/programs for ecologically sensitive areas
  8. identify riparian refugia based on climate models

11.3 Changes Temperature Regimes

Threats

  1. proliferates invasive plants
  2. increased duration and frequency
  3. lower oxygen
  4. reduced instream flows
  5. increased algae
  6. higher water temperature
  7. shorter winter season
  8. increased fires
  9. drought
  10. increased temperature degree days
  11. limits management actions

Conservation Action

  1. alter management plans
  2. protection of instream flows
  3. offer incentives and programs to protect, enhance, and restore riparian areas
  4. support data collection efforts
  5. evaluate carbon sequestration programs
  6. habitat suitability modelling

11.4 Changes Precipitation and Hydrological Regimes

Threats

  1. proliferates invasive plants
  2. loss of wildlife or plant production
  3. increased mortality of wildlife

Conservation Action

  1. offer incentives and programs to protect, enhance, and restore riparian areas
  2. alter management plans
  3. maintain instream flows

11.5 Severe/Extreme Weather Events

Threats

  1. siltation, sedimentation and erosion
  2. proliferate invasive plants
  3. consequences of urban development in floodplain

Conservation Action

  1. offer incentives and programs to protect, enhance, and restore rivers, streams and riparian
  2. incentivize buffers
  3. prohibit development in the floodplain
  4. oppose dry dams, drainage projects

Other

12.1 Human Dimensions

Threats

  1. social apathy of the value of healthy wetlands and ecosystem services they provide
  2. lack of knowledge of aquatic ecosystem
  3. economic incentives

Conservation Action

  1. increase awareness, understanding, and appreciation of the aquatic ecosystem and ecosystem services
  2. increase public education and outreach
  3. provide demonstration sites
  4. incorporate wetland education into K-12 classrooms
  5. human dimension research/surveys
  6. economic incentives for beneficial activities
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